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商务部关于做好2005年跨国零售集团国际采购会招商招展工作的通知

作者:法律资料网 时间:2024-07-06 04:02:31  浏览:8406   来源:法律资料网
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商务部关于做好2005年跨国零售集团国际采购会招商招展工作的通知

商务部


商务部关于做好2005年跨国零售集团国际采购会招商招展工作的通知

商务部 市场建设司


各驻外使(领)馆经商参处(室):

为进一步推动跨国零售集团与国内优秀供应商的对接,帮助更多的消费品生产企业进入跨国零售集团全球采购网络,扩大国内产品出口,我部和江苏省人民政府定于2005年11月4日至6日在南京共同主办“2005年跨国零售集团国际采购会”(以下简称跨采会)。为做好招商招展工作,现请各驻外经商参处帮助邀请所在国的大型商业企业、尤其是排名世界500强的跨国零售集团参会采购。附上邀请函和跨采会简介,请向外商做好宣传、推介。对有意参会的外商,请及时通知我们,以便我们做好联络和接待服务工作。

  联系方式:

  商务部(市场体系建设司)

  联系人:王彊、曹德荣

  电 话:010-85226391,85226392 传真:010-65129571

  Email:liujun_js@mofcom.gov.cn


  江苏省人民政府(江苏省经济贸易委员会)

  联系人:倪海清、张净、孟丽

  电 话:025-83398218,83303552 传真:025-83301389

  Email:zwhbgs@irgsf.gov.cn, zhz@irgsf.gov.cn





  附件:1.2005年跨国零售集团国际采购会简介

     2.邀请函



二○○五年九月二十六日


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附件1:

2005年跨国零售集团国际采购会简介



  为进一步推动跨国零售集团与国内优秀供应商的对接,帮助更多的企业直接进入跨国零售集团全球采购网,商务部和江苏省人民政府决定举办“2005年跨国零售集团国际采购会”。

会议宗旨:使国内生产企业更快地了解世界消费市场的现状和发展趋势,直接按照跨国零售集团对商品质量、性能、标准及包装的要求组织生产,推动技术进步和产业升级,提高企业国际竞争力;国内商品更多更好地进入跨国连锁零售集团的国际销售网络,扩大出口;帮助国外大型连锁商业企业减少采购环节,降低采购成本。本次采购会不以赢利为目的,尽量减轻参展企业负担。政府搭台、企业唱戏,供需双方直接洽谈、自由交易。

主办单位:商务部,江苏省人民政府

会议时间:2005年11月4日至6日

会议地点:江苏省南京市国际展览中心

采购商:参加采购会的跨国公司将达20多家,其中包括沃尔玛(Wal-Mart)、家乐福(Carrefour)、麦德龙(Metro)、塔斯科(Tesco)、伊滕洋华堂(Ito-Yokado)、永旺(Aeon)、欧尚(Auchan)、翠丰(Kingfisher)等进入世界500强的跨国零售集团。此外,国内一些大型连锁商业企业也将参会采购。

国内生产企业:1500家左右。参加采购会的生产企业是从全国范围内筛选出来的,信誉良好、产品质量高、供货及时、实力较强,在本行业中处于领先地位。参展商品主要为日用百货、小五金工具、纺织服装、丝绸产品、鞋帽、家居用品、运动休闲用品、电子电器产品、办公用品及文具、礼品及饰品、食品饮料、农副产品、建筑装修材料及其它特色商品。

会议内容及特色:采购会将采购与研讨、咨询、交流有机结合起来,突破了传统交易会、展览会的模式。除了供应商产品展示外,采购商尤其是国外跨国公司也将布展。主要跨国零售集团还将召开采购说明会,就国内生产企业进入跨国零售集团全球销售网络进行辅导,介绍采购程序和产品质量、款式、包装、交货等要求。国内生产企业可将拟开发的产品或产品设计(包括服装设计),向跨国零售集团展示。采购会期间,将举办以“世界消费市场现状与发展趋势”为主题的高层论坛,世界著名跨国公司领导人出席并演讲。会议内容独特、注重实效,尽可能满足企业需要。

参展费用:采购会特为跨国零售企业举办样品展示、采购说明、采购咨询及其他活动提供便利条件。所需展位、采购说明会场及洽谈室免费。参会人员的差旅费、食宿费、交通费自理。

会议网站: www.irgsf.gov.cn,网站提供采购会筹备动态,采购商、供应商情况,场馆信息,会议日程,报名程序等。

  江苏省联系人:朱卫东、朱 霖、胡 洁

  电话:0086-25-83392460,83398236

  移动电话:13851876165;13814530038;13913928175

  传真:0086-25-83398236

  E-mail:zwhbgs@irgsf.gov.cn, zhz@irgsf.gov.cn

  联系人:王彊、曹德荣

  电话:0086-10-85226391

  E-mail:liujun_js@mofcom.gov.cn



--------------------------------------------------------------------------------



Brief Introduction to 2005 Interantional Retailers’

Global Sourcing Fair



In order to further promote the bridging between transnational retail groups and excellent domestic suppliers and assist more enterprises in directly entering global procurement network of transnational retail groups, the Ministry of Commerce and Jiangsu Provincial Government shall hold “2005 Interantional Retailers’ Global Sourcing Fair”.



Tenet of the Conference: to enable domestic enterprises to understand the status quo and development trend of the world consumer market at a faster pace, directly organize production as per requirements by transnational retail groups in terms commodity quality, performance, standards and packaging, promote technological progress and industrial upgrading and improve international competitiveness of the enterprises; domestic commodities to enter the international sales network of the transnational chain retail groups in a larger quantity and at a fast pace and expand exports; to assist overseas large chain commercial enterprise in slimming procurement procedures and lower procurement costs. This Procurement Conference is not aiming at making profits but reduce costs of participation. The government shall create the platform for the enterprises to be the players so that suppliers and procurers can negotiate directly and do business freely.

Sponsors: Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China

Jiangsu Provincial People’s Government

Time: Nov. 4 -6, 2005

Venue: International Exhibition Center of Nanjing, Jiangsu

Procurers: up to two dozens of transnational companies shall take part in this Procurement Conference, among which are Top 500 transnational retail groups such as Wal-Mart, Carrefour, Metro, Tesco, Ito-Yokado, Aeon, Auchan, and Kingfisher. Besides, some large domestic chain commercial enterprises shall also participate in this Conference.

Domestic production enterprises: 1500 enterprises or so. These production enterprises have been screened out from nationwide ones. They have good reputation, high-quality products, timely supply competence, solid economic foundation and the leading position in this trade. Exhibition commodities are mainly daily necessities, hardware tools, textiles and clothing, silk products, footwear and caps, household decorations, sports and leisure goods, electric appliances, office goods and stationery, gifts and decorations, food and drinks, agricultural byproducts, construction decoration materials as well as other specialties.


Conference arrangement and features: the Procurement Conference shall combine workshops, consultancy and communication and exchanges, which breaks the traditional mode of trade fairs and exhibitions. Besides exhibiting products from the suppliers, procurers (especially overseas companies) shall exhibit their products. Key transnational retail groups shall hold procurement previews to tutor domestic production enterprises in entering the global sales network of transnational retail groups and introducing procurement procedures and requirements of product quality, styles, packaging and delivery of goods. Domestic production enterprises may exhibit to transnational retail groups their products to-be-developed or product designs (including fashion designs). During this Conference, a forum on Status quo & Development Trend of World Consumer Market” shall be held, in which top executives from world famous transnational companies shall participate and deliver the speeches. The Conference has a special-flavored content, values actual effects and exerts no efforts in satisfying the needs of the enterprises.



Exhibition payment package: The sample show stands, sourcing presentation hall and negotiation rooms needed will be free of charge. Conference participants shall take care of their own travel fees, food and boarding as well as traffic fees.



Conference website: www.irgsf.gov.cn shall provide dynamic information of preparation for the Procurement Conference, procurers and suppliers, conference halls, conference agenda and registration procedures.



  Contact of Jiangsu Province: Mr. Zhu Weidong & Mr. Zhu Lin & Ms. Hu Jie

  Tel:0086-25-83392460 83398236

  Mobilephone:13851876165 13814530038 13913928175

  Fax: 0086-25-83398236
  E-mail:zwhbgs@irgsf.gov.cn, zhz@irgsf.gov.cn

  Contact of Ministry of Commerce:Mr. Wang Qiang

  Tel: 0086-10-85226391

  E-mail:liujun_js@mofcom.gov.cn



--------------------------------------------------------------------------------



附件2:2005跨国零售集团国际采购会国(境)外采购商邀请函



  时间:2005年11月4日-6日

  地点:中国·南京国际展览中心

  主办单位:中华人民共和国商务部

 江苏省人民政府

  承办单位:江苏省经济贸易委员会

  协办单位:南京市人民政府

       苏省对外贸易经济合作厅

江苏省农林厅

江苏省海洋与渔业局

江苏省食品药品监督管理局

江苏省进出口生产企业协会

中国国际贸易促进委员会江苏省分会

中国物流与采购联合会

国内有关大型企业集团

本次跨国零售集团国际采购会是继2002年部省联合成功举办了首届跨国零售集团国际采购会之后,又一次由部省联合主办的集展示、采购、洽谈、研讨、培训、咨询于一体的大型现代会展。

本次采购会主要为跨国零售企业发现、选择中国优秀供应商提供平台,减少采购环节,降低采购成本,提高采购效率。

采购会组委会将根据各跨国零售企业的采购需求,在全国范围内遴选1500家左右产品质量好、供货及时、价格具有竞争力、符合一定商业道德标准的生产企业参会,并在会前将其在采购会网站上发布,供采购商评议,便于供需双方事先接洽。

本次采购会展示的主要商品有日用百货、小五金工具、纺织服装、丝绸产品、鞋帽、家居用品、运动休闲用品、电子电器产品、办公用品及文具、礼品及饰品、食品饮料、农副产品、建筑装修材料及其他特色商品,一些供应商将在会上展示其最新产品。

组委会将为跨国零售企业举办样品展示、采购说明、采购咨询及其他活动提供便利条件。所需展位、采购说明会场及洽谈室免费。

为使采购会富有成效,请贵公司于10月15日前确认是否参加本届采购会,并将采购商报名回执(可在采购会网站www.irgsf.gov.cn上下载后填写)尽快传真并以电子邮件寄送我们。

对贵公司的合作表示衷心感谢。



  江苏省联系人:朱卫东 朱 霖 胡 洁

  电话:0086-25-83392460、83398236

  移动电话:13851876165、13814530038、13913928175

  传真:0086-25-83398236

  E-mail:zwhbgs@irgsf.gov.cn, zhz@irgsf.gov.cn



  商务部联系人:王 彊

  电话:0086-10-85226391

  E-mail:liujun_js@mofcom.gov.cn





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Invitation To International Retailers Attending 2005 Interantional Retailers’ Global Sourcing Fair



  Date: November 4-6, 2005

  Site: Nanjing International Exhibition Center, China

  Sponsor: Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China

Jiangsu Provincial People’s Government

  Organizer: Economic and Trade Commission of Jiangsu Provincial People’s Government

  Co-organizer: Nanjing Municipal People’s Government

Department of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation of Jiangsu Provincial People’s Government

Department of Agriculture and Forestry of Jiangsu Provincial People’s Government

Oceanic and Fishery Administration of Jiangsu Provincial People’s Government

Food and Drug Administration of Jiangsu Provincial People’s Government

Jiangsu Provincial Association of Import and Export Manufacturers

China Council for the Promotion of International Trade, Jiangsu Branch

China Federation of Logistics and Purchasing

Other large-scale enterprise groups in China



The International Retailers’ Global Sourcing Fair was successfully held in 2002 for the first time under the joint sponsorship of central government’s ministry and provincial government. This year again it will be held as a large-scale modern fair combining exhibition, purchase, business talks, seminars, training and consultation activities.



The Exhibition will provide a platform for international retailers to find and choose good suppliers in China, reduce intermediary links and purchase costs, and improve the purchase efficiency.



The Organization Committee of the Exhibition will, according to the needs of international retailers, choose about 1500 Chinese manufacturers who are qualified in respect of their good product quality, prompt delivery, competitive prices and excellent commercial morality to attend the Exhibition. The list of suppliers will be issued on the webside (http://www.irgsf.gov.cn) before the opening of the fair, for evaluation and comments by retailers, to facilitate contact between suppliers and retailers in advance.



The products to be exhibited mainly include commodities of daily use, small hardware tools, garments, silks, shoes and headwear, household articles, products for sport and leisure, electric and electronic appliances, office supplies and stationery, gifts, decorations, food and drinks, agricultural products, architectural fittings, and other unique goods. Some suppliers will present their latest products for the occasion.



The Organization Committee will provide international retailers with conveniences in their sample display, purchase presentation and consultation, and other activities. The sample show stands, sourcing presentation hall and negotiation rooms needed will be free of charge.



To make the Exhibition effective, please confirm your participation no later than 15 October 2005 and send us through facsimile or email as soon as possible the RECEIPT (download from the Exhibition website).



Your kind cooperation is highly appreciated.





  Contact Person of Jiangsu Province: Mr. Zhu Weidong & Mr. Zhu Lin & Ms.Hu Jie

  Tel: 0086-25-83392460 83398236

  Mobilephone:13851876165 13814530038 13913928175

  Fax: 0086-25-83398236

  E-mail:zwhbgs@irgsf.gov.cn, zhz@irgsf.gov.cn

  Contact Person of Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of         China : Mr. Wang Qiang

  Tel: 0086-10-85226391

  E-mail:liujun_js@mofcom.gov.cn



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外国商会管理暂行规定(附英文)

国务院


外国商会管理暂行规定(附英文)

(1989年6月14日中华人民共和国国务院令第36号发布)

第一条 为了促进国际贸易和经济技术交往,加强对外国商会的管理,保障其合法权益,制定本规定。
第二条 外国商会是指外国在中国境内的商业机构及人员依照本规定在中国境内成立,不从事任何商业活动的非营利性团体。
外国商会的活动应当以促进其会员同中国发展贸易和经济技术交往为宗旨,为其会员在研究和讨论促进国际贸易和经济技术交往方面提供便利。
第三条 外国商会必须遵守中华人民共和国法律、法规的规定,不得损害中国的国家安全和社会公共利益。
第四条 成立外国商会,应当具备下列条件:
(一)有反映其会员共同意志的章程;
(二)有一定数量的发起会员和负责人;
(三)有固定的办公地点;
(四)有合法的经费来源。
第五条 外国商会应当按照国别成立,可以有团体会员和个人会员。
团体会员是以商业机构名义加入的会员。商业机构是指外国公司、企业以及其他经济组织依法在中国境内设立的代表机构和分支机构。
个人会员是商业机构和外商投资企业的非中国籍任职人员以本人名义加入的会员。
第六条 外国商会的名称应当冠其本国国名加上“中国”二字。
第七条 成立外国商会,应当通过中国国际商会提出书面申请,由其报送中华人民共和国对外经济贸易部(以下简称审查机关)审查。
审查机关应当在收到全部申请书件之日起六十天内完成审查,对于符合本规定第四条规定条件的,签发审查同意的证件;对于不符合前述条件的,退回申请。如有特殊情况,不能在规定期限内完成审查的,审查机关应当说明理由。
第八条 成立外国商会的书面申请,应当由外国商会主要筹办人签署,并附具下列文件:
(一)外国商会章程一式五份。章程应当包括下列内容:
1.名称和地址;
2.组织机构;
3.会长、副会长以及常务干事的姓名、身份;
4.会员的入会手续及会员的权利和义务;
5.活动内容;
6.财务情况。
(二)发起会员名册一式五份。团体会员和个人会员,应当分别列册。团体会员名册应当分别载明商业机构的名称、地址、业务范围和负责人姓名;个人会员名册应当分别载明本人所属商业机构或者外商投资企业、职务、本人简历或者在中国境内从事商业活动的简历。
(三)外国商会会长、副会长以及常务干事的姓名及其简历一式五份。
第九条 成立外国商会的申请经审查机关审查同意后,应当持审查同意的证件,依照本规定和有关法律、法规的规定,向中华人民共和国民政部(以下简称登记管理机关)办理登记。外国商会经核准登记并签发登记证书,即为成立。
第十条 外国商会应当在其办公地点设置会计帐簿。会员缴纳的会费及按照外国商会章程规定取得的其他经费,应当用于该外国商会章程规定的各项开支,不得以任何名义付给会员或者汇出中国境外。
第十一条 外国商会应当于每年1月通过中国国际商会向审查机关、登记管理机关提交上一年度的活动情况报告。
中国国际商会应当为外国商会开展活动和联系中国有关主管机关提供咨询和服务。
第十二条 外国商会需要修改其章程、更换会长、副会长以及常务干事或者改变办公地址时,应当依照本规定第七条、第八条和第九条规定的程序经审查同意,并办理变更登记。
第十三条 外国商会应当接受中国有关主管机关的监督。
外国商会违反本规定的,登记管理机关有权予以警告、罚款、限期停止活动,撤销登记、明令取缔的处罚。
第十四条 外国商会解散,应当持该外国商会会长签署的申请注销登记报告和清理债务完结的证明,向登记管理机关办理注销登记,并报审查机关备案。
外国商会自缴回登记证书之日起,即应停止活动。
第十五条 本规定自1989年7月1日起施行。

PROVISIONAL REGULATIONS FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF FOREIGN CHAMBERSOFCOMMERCE IN CHINA

(Promulgated on June 14, 1989)

Whole Doc.
Article 1
The present Regulations are hereby formulated with the purpose of
promoting international trade and economic and technological exchanges,
strengthening the administration of foreign chambers of commerce in China
and protecting their lawful rights and interests.
Article 2
A foreign chamber of commerce in China refers to an organization
which is set up within the Chinese territory by foreign commercial
establishments and persons residing in the Chinese territory, does not
engage in any commercial activities and is not profit-making.
The activities of foreign chambers of commerce in China shall be
aimed at promoting trade and economic and technological cooperation
between their members and China and shall provide facilities to their
members in respect of studying and discussing how to develop international
trade and economic and technological cooperation.
Article 3
Foreign chambers of commerce in China must abide by the laws and
regulations of the People's Republic of China and shall not harm the
national security and social public interest of China.
Article 4
The following prerequisites are required for setting up a foreign
chamber of commerce in China:
(1) Possession of articles of association which reflect the common
intentions of the chamber's members;
(2) Requested by a certain number of sponsoring members and
executives;
(3) Availability of an established office; and
(4) Availability of lawful sources of funds.
Article 5
Foreign chambers of commerce in China shall be set up according to
country origin and may have both organization members and individual
members.
Organization members refer to those which join the chamber in the
name of commercial establishments. Commercial establishments refer to
representative offices and branches of foreign companies, enterprises and
other economic organizations lawfully established in the Chinese
territory.
Individual members refer to those who are staff members of
non-Chinese nationality working in commercial establishments and
enterprises with foreign investment and join the chamber in their own
name.
Article 6
The name of a foreign chamber of commerce in China shall be preceded
by the name of its own country plus the word "China".
Article 7
For the setting up of a foreign chamber of commerce in China, a
written application must be submitted through the China Chamber of
International Commerce to the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and
Trade (hereinafter referred as the Examination Authority) for examination.
The Examination Authority shall complete the examination within 60
days after receiving the written application and all the attached
documents mentioned in Article 8,and issue an approval certificate if the
prerequisites in Article 4 are met or reject the written application if
the above-mentioned prerequisites are not met. The Examination Authority
shall give explanations if the examination can not be completed within the
above fixed time range under special circumstances.
Article 8
The written application of a foreign chamber of commerce must be duly
signed by the chief sponsor with the following documents attached to it:
(1) Articles of association of the chamber in quintuplicate, in which
the following contents shall be included:
((1)) Name and address of the chamber;
((2)) Organizational structure of the chamber;
((3)) Names and status of the Chairman, Vice Chairmen and Managing
Director of the chamber;
((4)) Procedure for the admission of its members and the rights and
obligations of its members;
((5)) Activities of the chamber; and
((6)) Financial position of the chamber.
(2) A list of the sponsoring members of the chamber in quintuplicate
with the organization members and individual members listed separately.
For the organization members, the names, addresses, business scopes and
names of the executives shall be indicated. For the individual members,
the names of the commercial establishments or enterprises with foreign
investment to which the individual members belong, positions, personal
resumes or brief accounts of their commercial activities in China shall be
indicated.
(3) Names and resumes of the Chairman, Vice Chairmen and Managing
Director of the chamber in quintuplicate.
Article 9
After the written application for the setting up of a foreign chamber
of commerce in China has been examined and approved by the Examination
Authority, the chief sponsor shall, in accordance with the stipulations of
the present Regulations and other relevant laws and regulations, present
the approval certificate to the Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People's
Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as the Registration Authority)
for registration. A foreign chamber of commerce in China is deemed to be
in existence after it has been registered and a registration certificate
has been issued.
Article 10
A foreign chamber of commerce in China shall keep accounting books in
its office. Its membership fees and other funds obtained in accordance
with the stipulations of its articles of association shall be used to
cover the various expenses specified in its articles of association and
shall not, under any pretence, be used as payments to its members or
remitted out of the Chinese territory.
Article 11
Foreign chambers of commerce in China shall each submit in January of
every year a report on its activities in the previous year to the
Examination Authority and the Registration Authority through the China
Chamber of International Commerce.
The China Chamber of International Commerce shall provide foreign
chambers of commerce in China with consultancy services for their
activities and contacts with relevant Chinese authorities.
Article 12
When a foreign chamber of commerce in China needs to amend its
articles of association or change its Chairman, Vice Chairmen, Managing
Director or the address of its office, it must apply for examination and
approval and register for the changes through the procedures laid down in
Articles 7, 8 and 9.
Article 13
Foreign chambers of commerce in China shall accept the supervision of
relevant Chinese authorities.
Should a foreign chamber of commerce in China violate the present
Regulations, the Registration Authority has the right to decide on
punishments in the forms of fine, suspending its activities within a time
limit, revoking its registration or ordering to ban it.
Article 14
When a foreign chamber of commerce in China is to dissolve, it must
submit an application duly signed by its Chairman together with a
certificate proving the completion of its liquidation to the Registration
Authority for cancelling its registration and to the Examination Authority
for the record.
Any foreign chamber of commerce in China must stop its activities as
from the date when it returns its registration certificate to the
Registration Authority.
Article 15
The present Regulations shall come into effect as from July 1, 1989.



浅谈汉唐法律儒家化
——试论客观看待封建法制思想(客观看待儒家思想的作用)

陈锦良


一、 封建法律史中的儒家思想之起源(汉律儒家化之封建思想史背景)
(一) 浅谈汉律之儒家化
1、汉律儒家化之开端
(1)汉律儒家化之历史背景
(2)汉律儒家化之思想背景
2、汉律儒家化的具体表现
(1)立法指导思想之表现
(2)律法方面之表现
(3)司法方面之表现(浅谈春秋决狱)
3、汉律儒家化之历史影响
(二)浅谈唐律之儒家化
1、唐初立法之历史背景
(1)随末唐初的历史背景对立法者之立法思想之影响
(2)汉律秘唐初立法思想之比对,注重民事立法完备(荀子之舟水之说)
2、唐律儒家化之具体表现
(1)立法思想方面
(2)律法之儒家——屈法伸礼以维护家族纲常伦理·家庭财产支配权,连坐制度。
(3)司法之儒家化
3、唐律在秋国法制史上的影响
(1)以礼为立法根据
(2)以礼为定罪量刑标准(上犯下,下犯上)
(3)以礼注释法律
三、在当今法制社会如何看待汉唐法律儒家化这一历史现象

浅谈汉唐法律儒家化
一、封建法制史中的儒思想想之起源。
儒家思想这一中华文明智慧的明珠产生于先秦的春秋战国之际,其缔造者是历朝历代中国文人膜拜的孔子,当时社会处于从奴隶制走向封建制的剧烈动荡时期。在思想领域,西周以来的天赋神权观念已经动摇,反映并维护宗法等级制度的周“礼”也已崩溃。孔子对这些变化嗤之以鼻,希望恢复周代以礼为准则而构筑起来的社会制度,及其于这种制度而产生的社会秩序。为了这一目的,孔孟推出了“仁义礼智信”,“五常”之一儒家思想核心,其中“仁”指的是仁爱之心,施于政治便成为仁政,“义”指的是公直、正义;“礼”则指的是一种社会政治制度和家庭理规范,“智”则指的是智慧及其运用,而“信”则指信用、信誉。该五常及孟子加之以“勇”被后世儒家弟子奉为常理,常理——即不可违反的真理,时时刻刻都要遵循的定理。而在后世从政的儒家学者更是将这种信条施之以政,如“仁政”、“德王天下”更出现了后面的“引礼入法”。但以“礼”做为社会行为规范在那个思想动荡,战乱纷争的时代显然是不实际也不可能的。于是经过战乱过后,秦因其商秧变法而产生的强大国力统一中国脱颖而出,秦统治者所器重的法家思想给其带来了迅速的崛起,但也因其统治的残酷而迅速瓦解,因其统治者倾向于法家思想也同时给儒家思想以——“焚书坑儒”这一重创,到了汉代,经大儒董仲儒,才又将儒家思想重新振作,并成统治者和社会的主流思想,即以儒家思想做为思想统治之工具。
一) 浅谈汉律之儒家化
汉律的儒家化始于汉武帝期,这是中国历史上儒家思想成为主流思想的开端,也正是因此,儒家思想在中国历史上影响范围之大,历史之久以至其他思想都无可比拟,正是从董仲舒开始,从法律到社会思潮,从人们的社会行为规范到家庭伦理甚至个人行为无处不及,也由此,到二十世纪上半叶,一直影响着绝大多数中国人的思想和行为。
1、汉律儒家化之开端
既然说从汉化开始儒家思想成为中国的统治思想或者说是其统治了中国人的思想及行为,那么儒家思想又是如何达到这一登峰造极之效果的呢?这便是汉儒董仲舒提出的《春秋》大一统思想并为汉武帝采纳,进而董仲舒更提出“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”而又为汉武帝采纳开始的。
1)汉律儒家化的历史背景
经历了秦朝的苛政和楚汉之争的多年战乱,汉初统治者着重于重建社会生产力,实行以“无为而治”的黄老思想为中心统治,经过七十年的恢复发展,生产力和社会财富世大的发展和积攒,而汉初分封的诸侯王也因此而势力强大起来,构成对中央集权的威胁,至此汉初“无为而治”的思想对这种威胁似乎有些力不从心,而单纯依靠法家思想的统治又会引至秦朝灭亡悲剧的重演。据此,统治者急需一种比黄老思想更有力,比法家思想更温柔的手段来施行统治。汉武帝提出“举贤良方正,直言极谏之士”的诏书,而董仲舒对以《春秋》大一统之思想提出“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”并大德施教化,辅之以刑罚,即德主刑辅,为武帝采纳,至此儒家思想重登中国政治历史舞台。
2)汉律儒家化的思想背景
汉初七十年,统治者施行以黄老思想为主,以法家思想为辅的统治,终于达到了“文景之治”的效果,但在丰富的物质基础之上,旧有的法律已不足以调解基于人们丰富的物质财富上的复杂的社会关系,而各诸侯实力的强大,而又各自为政甚至蠢蠢欲动对中央集权统治的威胁更是愈演愈烈;针对这种形势,董仲舒指出了这种思想上的混乱应以儒家经典《春秋》统一思想,“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”。并以儒家礼治思想钳制社会思想和行为。另外,又结合秦朝灭亡的历史教训,看到法家思想只能“诛恶”而不能“劝善”的弊端,提出了《春秋繁露·基义》中“圣人多其爱而少其严,厚其德而简其刑”即“德主刑辅”之说。以顺应统治者的需求。
董仲舒看到春秋战国时期儒家思想不为重视的历史,于是将儒家的五常“仁、义、礼、智、信”和法家的“三纲”结合,更系统地将“三纲”论述为“君为臣纲、父为子纲、夫为妻纲”等思想赋之以阴阳家神秘化的表述结合起来满足统治的需要。
也就是说董仲舒以儒家经典思想为基础,结合了法家、阴阳家和道家顺应天意、道法自然的思想并将儒家的家庭伦理、理想社会形态纳入了统治思想的范畴,进而在法律上影响了汉律以至历朝历代的立法和人文思想、生活习惯、道德规范,进而更使儒家思想法律化、制度化。
2、汉律儒家化的具体表现
随着董仲舒的观点被汉武帝所接受,董仲舒也因而晋身于统治阶层中较高的位置,进而对立法、司法有着重大影响,也因此对中国几千年的封建史和思想史产生了巨大的影响。
1)在立法指导思想方面
首先,董仲舒提出了“天子受命于天,天下受命于天子”(《春秋繁露·为人者天》)的君权神授思想,将皇权神化,认为皇帝是百姓与上苍的中介,或者说代理,可以代天行赏或行罚。皇帝的至尊权威不受任何侵犯,否则以法律形式规定了最严厉的刑罚。凡是侵害皇帝个人和皇权统治的行为均视为最严重的犯罪。均构成“死罪”,如“欺漫”、“诋欺”、“诬”、“废格沮事”、“诽谤”甚至“腹诽”和“阿党”,“通行饮食”、“见之故纵”等罪名,有一些是对皇权统治构成危胁的罪名但更多的是对皇帝个人权威的法律保护,即皇帝个人代表了国家意志。这与以后儒家强调皇帝的权威是分不开的,而董仲舒则利用神化将其合法化。本来法律是用以维护统治阶级的利益,而儒家化的汉律则首先赋予皇帝特殊的人格,不受任何限制。其至尊地位,在法律上规定任何侵犯皇帝言行的行为都是大逆不道的罪行,甚至心理活动都不可以,如“腹诽”罪即在心里诽谤朝政,大臣颜异因此而被杀。这正是儒家重视内在修养这一特点在立法上的表现,儒家思想中的“八目”相当重视内在修养,而儒家化后的汉律也将心理因素做为犯罪与否和犯的是什么罪的依据。针对保护皇权的法律就更是如此。
其次,董仲舒提出了“德主刑辅”之思想,法律教育互补说,而非单纯的惩罚目的说,也据此减刑了许多肉刑,使犯罪者得以改过机会,而非将其处死做为处罚目的。他主张以德教为主,兴办学校,提倡儒家教育,把犯罪苗头从心理上消灭掉。而刑罚只是辅助之作用,而不象秦朝统治以刑罚多、刑罚重,一味强调“刑以杀为威”,并且以刑罚做为目的而忽视教育的作用,这在立法指导思想上吸取了秦朝残酷统治的历史教训,结合西汉初年统治阶层无为而治的统治思想,取其中间位置的德主而刑辅,即不单纯采取法家单纯的苛刑重典不近人情的惩罚目的学说,又不单纯的以教育为唯一方式,而是采取了儒家所谓中庸之说有主有辅,而孔子的刑罚教育目的学说在这里发挥了极大作用。孔子的认为教育以德礼教化百姓,便可达到“礼仪之邦”无为而治的目的。而对于那些“斗筲之性”的人则刑罚,而这种人只占少数,因此以德礼教育为主,刑罚为辅即可将统治推向仁政,因此在汉朝的立法上比秦朝更倾向于统治阶级利益的维护和家庭伦理观念的约束。其思想实质便是儒家的“三纲、五常”思想,这便引出了——礼律融合,三纲五常的尊卑思想指导立法或者说是指导了法律的价值取向。
“三纲”二字最早见于《韩非子》这一法家著作,而“三纲五常”连用则是在董仲舒之后的《白虎通义》中。不过对“三纲五常”作全面、系统论述的还是董仲舒,可以看得出董仲舒是以儒家经典为基础,结合了法家、阴阳家及道家之说,并为之所用,董仲舒在《春秋繁露·基义》中说:“凡物必有合…阴者阳之合,妻者夫之合,子者父之合,臣者君之合。”及“君臣父子夫妇之义,皆取诸阴阳之道。君为阳、臣为阴;父为阳、子为阴;夫为阳,妻为阴…是故臣兼功于君,子兼功于父,妻兼功于夫”,又说“丈夫虽贱皆为阳,妇人虽贵皆为阴”。而在《春秋繁露·顺命》中说“天子受命于天,诸侯受于天子,子受命于父,君妾受命于君,妻受命于夫”基于这种思想指导在立法过程中很多汉律的条文都体现了这一思想根源,也使“三纲”除了做为一种道德规范外,更成为一种强制性的社会行为规范,至此个人、家庭、社会与政治统治从行为规范到法律制度形成了内在的统一。
而“五常”之道是董仲舒在汉武帝一次策问中提出,其服务对象主要是维护大一统政治局面,他说:“夫仁义礼智信,五常之道,王者所当修饰也。王者修饰,故受天之佑,而享鬼神之灵,德施于外,延及群生也”——《汉书·董仲舒传》。可见“三纲”是用以约束臣民,而“五常”则延及范围包括君主,以礼区分社会等级的尊卑制度和行为标准,而“仁、义、礼、智、信”则是整个社会的伦理本位和道德价值标准,其中君主的表率作用亦不乏其中。

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